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 Encyclopedia
Judaica 2nd Edition
An essential source of information on
Jewish life, culture, history, and
religion.
In 1972, the
Encyclopaedia Judaica fulfilled the
longstanding dream of capturing the full
richness of Jewish culture in a single
authoritative publication, heralded in the
scholarly community as one of the best
reference works ever compiled.
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DICTIONARIES, HEBREW: By : Richard
Gottheil Wilhelm Bacher
ARTICLE HEADINGS:
Talmudic Lexicons
Judah ibn Koraish
David ben Abraham
Abu al-Walid ibn Janah
The "'Aruk"
Menahem ben Solomon
The Kimhis
In Italy, Spain, and the East
Elijah Levita
Christian Lexicographers
The Most Popular Dictionaries
Gesenius
Jewish Lexicographers of the Nineteenth
Century
Jewish Dictionaries of Talmud
Modern Hebrew
The earliest known work giving a lexical
survey of part of the Hebrew language,
with comments, is the dictionary of
Biblical proper names (Ερμενεiα Εβραικων
ΟΝομάτων) ascribed to Philo of Alexandria,
and in any case the work of a Greek Jew.
Origen, in the third century, enlarged it,
and Jerome, at the end of the fourth
century, worked it over in Latin (P. de
Lagarde, "Onomastica Sacra," 2d ed., 1887;
Schürer, "Geschichte," 3d ed., iii. 540).
Aside from these first lexical works on
the Bible, which have been preserved only
within the Christian Church, there are no
traces of a similar attempt in pre-geonic
times. The manner in which the Bible was
expounded and its language handed down by
tradition in the Jewish schools of
Palestine and Babylon, precluded the need
of lexical aids. Traditional literature,
beginning with the tannaitic Midrash,
contains, of course, numerous lexical
comments on the words of the Bible; and
this literature, including the old Bible
translations, must be regarded as the
earliest and most important source of
Hebrew lexicology. |
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Talmudic Lexicons
The first lexicon mentioned in Hebrew
literature deals not with the Bible, but
with the Talmud. Gaon Zemah b. Paltoi of
Pumbedita (last quarter of the ninth
century) wrote a lexicon for the
Babylonian Talmud, of which, however,
only small fragments have been preserved
in quotations (see Kohut, "Aruch
Completum," Introduction, pp. xviii. et
seq.). Perhaps Zemah himself designated
his work by the name 'Aruk (), which
word (derived from the verb , Job xxxii.
14) is the earliest term in Jewish
literature for a lexicon, though it
gained currency only through Nathan b.
Jehiel's work (see below) of that title.
The first known Hebrew lexicon is called
"Agron" (, pronounced also "Igron"),
meaning "a collection of words," from ,
"to collect." It is a youthful work of
Saadia, gaon of Sura, and was written in
913. It was intended, as Saadia says in
the introduction (still extant), not
only to promote the knowledge of the
pure Biblical language, but also as an
aid to writing poetry. Hence Saadia's "Agron"
was a double lexicon, arranged, as were
most of the original Arabic lexicons,
according to the alphabetical sequence
of the first and final letters of the
roots and words, corresponding to the
two formal requirements of the Hebrew
versification of that time, acrostic and
rime. Saadia, who originally had
supplemented each word by only a
Biblical passage in which it occurred,
made a second, enlarged edition of the "Agron,"
in which he gave the Arabic equivalents
for the words, besides also chapters in
Arabic on various subjects useful for
poets. He also changed the name of the
work to "Book of Poetry," or "Book on
the Principles of Poetry" (for the
extant fragments see Harkavy, "Studien
und Mittheilungen," v.). A smaller but
likewise epoch-making work of Saadia's
was his explanation, from the language
of the Mishnah and Talmud, of 70 (or
rather 90) words occurring seldom or
only once in the Bible. This has been
edited many times.
Judah ibn Koraish
Saadia's elder contemporary, Judah ibn
Koraish of Tahart, North Africa,
composed a larger work along the lines
of Saadia's small list of Biblical
words. This work, which is still extant,
was written in the form of a letter ("risalah")
to the community of Fas (Fez), and has
three chief divisions in lexical
arrangement, containing comparisons of
Hebrew words with (1) New-Hebrew words
of the Mishnah, (2) Aramaic words, and
(3) Arabic Words. This is the first work
on Semitic comparative linguistics, and
it has held a permanent place in Hebrew
philology (ed. Bargès and Goldberg,
Paris, 1857). The third part, containing
comparisons of Hebrew and Arabic words,
was known separately as "Sefer ha-Yahas,"
or "Sefer Ab wa-Em," according to the
initial words (Ibn Ezra, Introduction to
his "M'oznayim"; Ibn Ezra's
contemporary, Isaac b. Samuel, quotes "Agron
Ab wa-Em"; see "Jew. Quart. Rev." x.
729). Ibn Koraish also began a larger
lexicon, which, however, was not carried
beyond the roots beginning with alef
(see Bacher, "Die Anfänge der
Hebräischen Grammatik," p. 69; "Jew.
Quart. Rev." l.c.). This work, which
Menahem b. Saruk. quotes as "Sefer
Pitronim" (Book of Explanations),was,
like Saadia's "Agron," doubtless written
in Arabic, as was the "risalah."
David ben Abraham
What Ibn Koraish's lexicon would have
been may be seen from that of David b.
Abraham (tenth century), which has been
preserved in an almost complete state.
The latter author, called also Abu
Sulaiman of Fas (Fez), belonged to the
Karaite sect, and was probably
stimulated by Ibn Koraish's writings to
undertake his own work, which, also,
contained many Hebrew-Arabic
comparisons. Like Saadia, the only
author to whom he refers by name, David
b. Abraham calls his lexicon (written in
Arabic) "Agron," which he renders in
Arabic by "Jami' al-Alfaz." (Collector
of Words). Through him the Karaites came
to prefer the word "agron" as a term for
"lexicon." An author belonging to that
sect, writing in Arabic in the beginning
of the eleventh century, calls David b.
Abraham's work "the chief representative
of the Agron literature" (see "Rev.
Etudes Juives," xxx. 252); and Judah
Zadassi (twelfth century) mentions the "Agronot"
or "Sifre ha-Agron" ("Monatsschrift,"
xl. 125). David b. Abraham also produced
an abridgment of his lexicon, as did
Levi b. Japheth later, whose work was
made the basis of Ali b. Sulaiman's "Agron,"
written in the first half of the
eleventh century (Pinsker, "Likkute
Kadmoniyyot," i. 117, 183; "Rev. Etudes
Juives," xxx. 125). Extracts from David
b. Abraham's work, which was the only
original contribution of the Karaites to
Hebrew lexicography, have been published
by Pinsker (l.c. pp. 117-162, 206-216;
see also Neubauer, "Notice sur la
Lexicographie Hébraïque," pp. 25-155).
After David b. Abraham, Abu al-Faraj
Harun only is to be mentioned: he is
none other than the anonymous grammarian
of Jerusalem mentioned by Ibn Ezra in
the introduction to the "M'oznayim." The
seventh part of his "Al-Mushtamil,"
completed in 1026, is a kind of
root-lexicon, in which the
triconsonantal roots are so treated that
all the roots formed by combinations of
the same three letters are arranged in
one group; for example, all roots
containing the letters ?, ?, and
?—namely, —are treated under (see "Rev.
Etudes Juives," xxx. 247 et seq.,
xxxiii. 20 et seq.). A similar
arrangement was also adopted about the
same time by the leading rabbinical
authority of the East, the gaon Hai, in
his lexicon "Kitab al-Hawi" (Hebr.
"Sefer ha-Me'assef," or "Sefer ha-Kolel"),
of which only quotations and fragments
are extant (see "Z. D. M. G." lv. 129 et
seq., 597 et seq.).
Long before Hai Gaon's time (d. 1038) a
lexicon had inaugurated in the West a
period of literary activity that made
Spain the real home of Hebrew philology.
About 960 Menahem ben Saruk. wrote his "Mahberet"
(name derived from Ex. xxvi. 4), the
first complete lexical treatment in the
Hebrew language of the words in the
Bible. In the arrangement of his lexicon
Menahem rigidly adheres to the theory of
roots current at that time. He includes
roots of one and two letters, and adds a
lengthy grammatical introduction
together with longer and shorter
excursus. On account of its Hebrew form
this lexicon (ed. Filipowski, London,
1854) was for a long time the generally
accepted lexical aid to Bible study in
European countries where Arabic did not
prevail; while in Spain itself it at
first gave rise to lively polemics in
the works of Dunash b. Labrat. and of
Menahem's and Dunasch's pupils. It was
soon superseded, however, in the new era
of Hebrew philology inaugurated by
Menahem's pupil Judah b. David Hayyuj.
Abu al-Walid ibn Janah
Hayyuj (end of the tenth century) set
forth his theory of roots and his
fundamental view of verbal inflection in
two works, in which the weak radicals
and the radicals in which the second
letter is doubled are grouped together
in lexicographical order. The same
arrangement obtains in the first work of
Hayyuj's eminent successor, the "Kitab
al-Mustalhak." (Hebr. "Sefer ha-Hassagah"),
a critical supplement to Hayyuj's works
by Abu al-Walid Merwan ibn Janah. The
chief work of Abu al-Walid (called R.
Jonah in Hebrew; lived in the first half
of the eleventh century) is divided into
a grammar and a lexicon. The latter,
entitled "Kitab al-Us.ul" ("Sefer ha-Shorashim"),
is the high-water mark of the lexical
activity of the Middle Ages, and is
remarkable for the value of its contents
as well as for the methodical
arrangement of the material. Especially
noteworthy are the comparative
definitions of the words and the large
number of Bible-exegetical details. This
lexicon influenced directly or
indirectly the entire later Hebrew
lexicography: the Arabic original was
edited by Neubauer (Oxford, 1875); and
Bacher edited the Hebrew translation of
Judah ibn Tibbon (Berlin, 1896).
Mention should be made here of the
following works pertaining to the
subject, and written in Arabic by
Spanish Jews of the eleventh and twelfth
centuries: Judah ibn Balaam's small
treatises on the homonyms and particles;
Abu Ibrahim ibn Barun's monograph "Kitab
al-Muwazanah," on the relation of Hebrew
to Arabic (edited, as far as extant, by
Kokowzoff, St. Petersburg, 1894); "Kitab
al-Kamil" (in Hebrew "Sefer ha-Shalem"),
including a grammar and lexicon, by
Jacob b. Eleazar of Toledo, known only
through extracts.
The "'Aruk"
Outside the domain of Arabic culture the
first great lexicon to traditional
literature (Talmud, Midrash, and Targum)
was contributed by Italy, the old seat
of Talmudic scholarship. This work is
the "'Aruk" of Nathan b. Jehiel of Rome,
which was finished about 1100, and has
remained up to the present time the most
important lexical aid to Talmudic study.
Nathan arranged the roots according to
the early system followed by Menahem,
and paid particular attention to rare
expressions and borrowed words,
following largely the Talmud exegesis
handed down by the Geonim (first ed. in
Italy before 1480; latest ed. by Kohut,
1878-92, 8 vols.). With the exception of
Gaon Zemah's "'Aruk," referred to above,
the only work of this kind mentioned as
preceding Nathan's is the "Alphabeton,"
a kind of glossary by Makir, the brother
of Rabbenu Gershom (first half of the
eleventh century; see Rapoport's
biography of Nathan, note 12). Samuel b.
Jacob Jam'a of North Africa made
important additions to Nathan's "'Aruk"
in the twelfth century ("Grätz
Jubelschrift," Hebrew part, pp.
1-47).The glossaries by the geonim
Sherira and Hai accompanying the texts
of certain Talmudic treatises do not
come within the scope of this article
(see Bacher, "Leben und Werke des
Abulwalid," pp. 84 et seq.).
Menahem ben Solomon
Half a century after Nathan b. Jehiel,
Menahem b. Solomon, also of Rome, wrote
a lexicon with the evident intention of
upholding Ibn Saruk.'s reputation in the
face of the system founded by the
Spanish school, and at that time (1143)
propagated in Italy by Abraham ibn Ezra.
Menahem b. Solomon's lexicon is the
chief part of his manual of Bible study,
"Eben Bohan" (Touchstone; see Bacher in
"Grätz Jubelschrift," pp. 104-115).
While this lexicon had little influence,
that of Solomon ibn Parhon, "Mahberet
he'Aruk" (ed. S. G. Stern, Presburg,
1844), written somewhat later (1160) at
Salerno, achieved a wide reputation.
This work was in the main an enlarged
extract from Abu al-Walid's lexicon, of
which it has erroneously been regarded
as a translation (see Bacher in Stade's
"Zeitschrift," x. 120-150, xi. 35-99).
Two other lexicons from two countries
that otherwise have contributed little
or nothing to the literature of Hebrew
philology must also be mentioned. The
first of these works, both of which drew
upon Ibn Parhon's lexicon, is the "Sefer
ha-Shoham" (Onyx Book), written by Moses
b. Isaac of London (end of the twelfth
century), the beginning of which was
edited by Collins, London, 1882. The
author has been identified as the
well-known punctator Moses ha-Nak.dan.
The second work is the lexicon of the
German Shimshon, who often defines the
words also in German (see Geiger's "Wiss.
Zeit. Jüd. Theol." v. 419-430).
The Kimhis
Southern France began to take the lead
in Jewish literature in the second half
of the twelfth century. About 1150
Joseph Kimhi of Narbonne wrote the
"Sefer ha-Galui" (Book of the
Revelation; edited by Mathews, Berlin,
1887), containing chiefly lexical matter
and a criticism of Menahem's lexicon.
His son, David Kimhi (1160-1235), wrote
the "Miklol," which contained a grammar
and a lexicon supplementary to Abu al-Walid's
chief work, but revealed, especially in
its method, a remarkable independence.
The lexicon, "Sefer ha-Shorashim"
(printed before the grammar, in Italy
prior to 1480; also Naples, 1490, 1491;
Constantinople, 1513; Venice, 1529; new
ed., Berlin, 1847), is much superior to
Abu al-Walid's lexicon, and was for
centuries the standard work of Hebrew
lexicography. In the latter half of the
thirteenth century Abraham Bedersi of
Bezières wrote the first book of Hebrew
synonymy, "Hotem Toknit." (see Ezek.
xxviii. 12), a large and valuable work,
arranged in alphabetical order (edited
by G. E. Polak, Amsterdam, 1865). In the
first third of the fourteenth century
the many-sided Joseph ibn Kaspi also
wrote a lexicon, "Shorshot Kesef" (see
Ex. xxviii. 22), in which he endeavored
to deduce the secondary meanings from
the general primary meaning of the root
(see "Orient, Lit." viii., ix.; Neubauer,
"Notice sur la Lexicogr. Hébraïque," pp.
208-211). "Menorat ha-Ma'or," the work
of a Greek Jew, Joseph b. David ha-Yewani,
of which only a fragment is extant in a
single manuscript, dates from about the
same time (see Neubauer, l.c. p. 207).
The first Hebrew concordance, also a
kind of lexicon (see Concordance), was
produced in the first half of the
fifteenth century by a Jew of southern
France.
In Italy, Spain, and the East
In Italy, where the scientific spirit
among the Jews was especially active in
the fifteenth century, Solomon b.
Abraham of Urbino wrote (1480) a book of
synonyms entitled "Ohel Mo'ed," Venice,
1548 (edited by Willheimer, Vienna,
1881), entirely different in character
from Abraham Bedersi's work. In Spain,
just before the expulsion of 1492, a
Hebrew lexicon was written in Arabic by
the learned rabbi of Granada, Saadia b.
Maimun ibn Danan ("Rev. Et. Juives,"
xli. 268).
In the East the study of Maimonides'
epoch-making work in the second half of
the thirteenth century resulted in
Tanhum b. Joseph Yerushalmi's lexicon,
"Al-Murshid al-Kafi" (The Sufficient
Guide), written in Arabic. This work
deals especially with Maimonides' "Mishneh
Torah," but includes also some of the
words of the Mishnah. A lexicon by
Solomon b. Samuel of Gurganj (Urgenj,
central Asia), completed in 1339, is a
remarkable example of intellectual
activity and wide literary knowledge
from a region which is not otherwise
mentioned in the history of Jewish
literature. It presents in uniform
alphabetical arrangement the vocabulary
of the Bible, the Targum, the Talmudic-Midrashic
literature, and some later works, in
about 18,000 articles, most of which are
very short. The author called his work
"Sefer ha-Melizah," and sometimes "Agron"
(see Bacher, "Ein Hebräisch-Persisches
Wörterbuch aus dem 14. Jahrhundert,"
Strasburg, 1900). A century later Moses
Shirwani of northern Persia completed
(1459) a Hebrew-Persian lexicon which he
called "Agron" (see Bacher in Stade's "Zeitschrift,"
xvi. 201-247). This is a popular aid to
Bible study, as is also the "Mak.re
Dardeke," a Hebrew-Arabic-Romanic
(Italian, French, Provencal) glossary to
the Bible which was produced about the
same time in western Europe (printed at
Naples about 1488).
Elijah Levita
At the beginning of the sixteenth
century a great and decisive change
occurred in the history of Hebrew
philology. From that time this science,
hitherto cultivated exclusively by the
Jews, took rank in the large circle of
scientific activities inaugurated by the
new humanism; and it soon became a
mighty factor in the religious movement
that revolutionized Germany.
Protestantism, going back directly to
the Bible, took up the study of the
Hebrew language, which henceforth became
an integral part of Protestant theology.
But in Judaism itself the period
beginning with this century was one of
intellectual stagnation. The old
classical literature of the preceding
periods was more and more forgotten, and
the one sided study of the Talmud
gradually displaced the study of the
Bible and its language, rendering the
literary productions in this field
utterly unimportant. The beginning of
this epoch of decadence was marked,
however, by Elijah Levita's activity,
with which the creative period of
Hebrewphilological literature within
Judaism was worthily closed. His works
include: "Sefer Zikronot," a Masoretic
lexicon or, rather, a Masoretic
concordance to the Bible, still in
manuscript; "Tishbi," a small lexicon of
712 articles (published in 1541 et
seq.), containing mostly New-Hebrew
words; and "Meturgeman," the first
lexicon to the Targumim (1541). Abraham
de Balmes did not finish the lexicon of
roots to which he refers several times
in his grammar.
The paucity of production in the field
of lexicography during the three
centuries of Jewish literature from 1500
to 1800 may be seen in the following
chronological lists of works issued
during this period, which are short and
served chiefly practical purposes.
These, as well as the following lists,
have been made with the help of
Steinschneider's "Bibliographisches
Handbuch" (compare the corrections and
additions by Steinschneider and Porges
in "Centralblatt für Bibliothekswesen,"
xiii., xv.):
Anshel, , Cracow, 1534; reprinted under
the title "Sefer Aushel," Cracow, 1584.
, "Libro de Ladinos de los Verbios Caros
di Toda la Mikra," Venice, 1588 and
1617.
, Hebr.-Germ.-Italian alphabetical
glossary, Cracow, 1590. David b. Abraham
Modena, , Hebrew-Italian glossary,
Venice, 1596 and 1606.
Judah Leon di Modena, , "Novo
Dittionario Hebr. e Ital." Venice, 1612;
Padua, 1640.
Solomon b. David Oliveyra, ,
Hebrew-Portuguese lexicon, Amsterdam,
1682; , Portuguese-Hebrew vocabulary,
Amsterdam, 1683.
Judah b. Zebi Hirsch, (dealing
especially with proper names), Jessnitz,
1719; , "Compend. Concordanz,"
Offenbach, 1732.
Eleazar Soesman, : part 1, grammar: part
2, Dutch-Hebrew dictionary; part 3,
Hebrew-Dutch dictionary, Amsterdam,
1741; "Nomenclator op Hebr. en Nederd.
Naamwoordenboek," ib. 1744.
Judah b. Joel Minden, , Hebrew lexicon,
chiefly following Kimhi, with
High-German notes, Berlin, 1759-60.
Abraham b. Menahem Schwab, ,
Hebrew-German lexicon to the same
author's , Amsterdam, 1767.
Phoebus b. Aryeh, , Hebrew-German
lexicon, Dyhernfurth, 1773.
Jacob Rodriguez Moreira, , "Vocabulary
of Words in the Hebrew Language . . . .
Done into English and Spanish," London,
1773.
Isaac b. Moses Satanow, , Hebrew-German
lexicon, Berlin, 1787; Prague, 1804.
David Levi, "Lingua Sacra," in three
parts, grammar and Hebrew-English and
English-Hebrew lexicons, London,
1785-89, 1803.
The following lexicographic works to the
Talmud must be added:
Anonymous, , Constantinople, 1511;
Cracow, 1591; Prague, 1707.
David b. Isaac de Pomis, , "Lexicon Hebr.
et Chald. Linguæ, Lat. et Ital.
Expositum," Venice, 1587.
Menahem Lonsano, , explanations of
difficult and foreign words in the
Talmud (in the ), Venice, 1618.
Benjamin Mussaphia, , additions to the
Aruk in the Amsterdam ed. of 1655.
David Cohen b. Isaac de Lara, , "De
Convenientia Vocabulorum Rabbinicorum
cum Græcis et Quibusdam Aliis Linguis,"
Amsterdam, 1638; , "De Convenientia
Vocabulorum Talmudicorum et Rabbinicorum,"
etc., Hamburg, 1668.
Benjamin b. David, , Hebrew-rabbinical
lexicon, Zolkiev, 1752.
Benjamin b. Isaac Levi Leitmeritz, , an
alphabetical glossary to the Zohar,
Lublin, 1645.
During the same period (1500-1800) the
need of lexical aids felt by Christians
studying Hebrew called forth a large
number of lexicons, the list of which is
as follows:
Johannes Reuchlin, "Rudimenta Linguæ
Hebraicæ una cum Lexico," Pforzheim,
1506; Basel, 1537.
Christian Lexicographers
Alfonsus Zamorensis (ex-Judæus), "Vocabularium
Hebr. et Chald. V. T." (in vol. vi. of
Complutensian Polyglot, 1515).
Theodoricus Martinus (Dirck Martens), "Dictionarium
Hebraicum," Louvain, c. 1520. Sebastian
Münster, "Dictionarium Hebraicum,"
Basel, 1523, 1525, 1535, 1539, 1548,
1564.
Sanctus (Xantes) Pagninus, "Thesaurus
Linguæ Sanctæ," Leyden, 1529; ed. Rob.
Stephanus, Paris, 1548; Leyden, 1575,
1577; Geneva, 1614.
Sebastian Münster, "Dictionarium
Trilingue" (Latin, Greek, Hebrew),
Basel, 1530, 1535, 1543, 1562.
Ant. Reuchlin, "Lexicon Hebr. Linguæ,"
Basel, 1556, 1569.
Jo. Förster (Forster, Vorstheimer), "Dictionarium
Hebr. Novum," Basel, 1557, 1564.
Jo. Avenarius (Habermann), "Liber
Radicum, seu Lexicon Hebr." Wittenberg,
1568, 1589.
Sanctus Pagninus, "Epitome Thesauri
Linguæ Sacræ," Antwerp, 1570, 1572,
1578, 1588, 1599, 1609, 1616, 1670.
Ambrosius Calepinus, "Dictionarium
Septem Linguarum," Geneva, 1578; Basel,
1584; "Dict. Undecim Lingu." Basel,
1590, 1598, 1605, 1616.
El. Hutter, "Cubus Alphabeticus Sanctæ
Hebraicæ Linguæ," Hamburg, 1586, 1588,
1603.
Marcus Marinus, "Area Noe, sive
Thesaurus Linguæ Sanctæ Novus," Venice,
1593.
Johann Buxtorf the Elder, "Lexicon
Hebr.-Chald." Basel, 1607, 1615, 1621,
1631, 1645, 1646, 1654, 1655, 1663,
1667, 1676, 1689, 1698, 1710, 1735; "Manuale
Hebr.-Chald." Basel, 1612, 1619, 1630,
1631, 1634, 1658.
Valentine Schindler, "Lexicon
Pentaglotton, Hebr., Chald., Syr.,
Talmudico-Rabbin., et Arab."
Frankfort-on-the-Main, 1612, 1649, 1653,
1695.
Jos. Abudacnus (Barbatus), "Lexicon Hebr."
Louvain, 1615.
Marius de Calasius, "Dictionarium Hebr."
Rome, 1617.
Joh Meelführer, "Manuale Lexici Hebr."
Leipsic, 1617, 1657.
Chr. Helvicus, "Lexicon Hebr. Didacticum,"
Glessen, 1620.
Sixtus ab Amama, Hebrew lexicon (Dutch),
Franeker, 1628.
Daniel Schwenterus, "Manipulus Linguæ
Sanctæ, sive Lex. Hebr. ad Formam Cubi
Hutteriani," Nuremberg, 1628, 1638;
Leipsic, 1668.
Philip Aquinas (ex-Jud.), "Dictionarium
Absolutissimum Hebr., Chald., et
Talm.-Rabbin." Paris, 1629.
Gregorius Francus (Franke), "Lexicon
Sacrum," Hanover, 1634.
William Alabaster, "Spiraculum Tubarum .
. . seu Schindleri Lexicon Pentaglottum
in Compend. Redact." London, 1635.
Edward Leigh, "Critica Sacra," in two
parts: (i.) observations on all the
radical or primitive Hebrew words in the
O. T. in alphabetical order, London,
1639, 1650, 1662; Latin, Amsterdam,
1678, 1688, 1696, 1706; French, ib.
1712.
Jo. Plantavitius, "Thesaurus Synonymicus
Hebr.-Chald.-Rabbin." Lodève, 1644-45.
Sebastian Curtius, "Radices Linguæ S.
Hebr." Geismar, 1645, 1648, 1649;
Amsterdam, 1652.
William Robertson, "The Second Gate. . .
a Compendious Hebr. Lexicon or
Dictionary," London, 1654.
h Hottinger, "Etymologicum Orientale, s.
Lexicon Harmonicum Heptaglotton,"
Frankfort, 1661 (also "Talmud.-Rabbin.").
J. Leusden, "Onomasticum Sacrum," Leyden,
1665, 1684; "Manuale Hebr.-Lat.-Belgicum,"
Utrecht, 1667, 1683.
Sebastian Curtius, "Manuale Hebr.-Chald.-Lat.-Belgicum,"
Frankfort, 1668.
Edw. Castellus, "Lexicon Heptaglottum,"
London, 1669, 1686; from this, "Lexicon
Hebraicum," adnot. J. D. Michaelis,
Göttingen, 1790.
Joh Coccejus, "Lexicon et Commentarius
Sermonis Hebr. et Chald. V. T."
Amsterdam, 1669; Frankfort, 1689, 1714;
Leipsic, 1777, 1793-96.
J. Friedr. Nicolai, "Hodegeticum
Orientale," part i.: "Lexicon Hebr."
etc., Jena, 1670; Frankfort, 1686.
Ant. Halsius, "Compendium Lexici
Hebraici," 3d ed., Utrecht, 1674, 1679,
1683.
William Robertson, "Thesaurus Linguæ
Sacræ Compend. . . . s. Concordant.
Lexicon Hebr.-Latino-Biblicum," London,
1680.
Matthew Hillerus, "Lexicon Latino-Hebr."
Tübingen, 1685.
Jo. Leusden, "Lexicon Novum
Hebr.-Latinum," Utrecht, 1687.
Jo. Michaelis, "Lexicon Particularum
Hebr." Frankfort, 1689.
Henr. Opitius, "Novum Lexicon
Hebr.-Chald.-Biblicum," Leipsic, 1692;
Hamburg, 1705, 1714, 1724.
Ge. Christ. Burcklinus, "Lexicon
Hebr.-Macaronicum," Frankfort, 1699; in
compend. redact. 1743.
Paul Math Alberti, "Porta Linguæ Sanctæ,
seu Lex. Novum Hebr.-Lat.-Biblicum,"
Bautzen, 1704.
Christ. Reineccius, "Janua Hebr. Linguæ
V. T." (since the 2d ed. with lexicon),
Leipsic, 1704, 1707, 1720, 1733, 1741,
1748, 1756, 1769, 1788.
Christ. Gottlieb Meinigius, "Lexicon
Hebr. in Compend. Redact." ib. 1712.
Joh Heeser, "Lapis Adjutorius, s.
Lexicon Philolog. Hebr.-Chald.-Sacrum,"
part i. (), Harderov, 1716.
Ge. Burchard Rümelinus, "Lexicon
Biblicum," Frankfort, 1716.
Lud. Christoph Schaefer, "Hebr.
Wörterbuch," Bernburg, 1720.
Charl. Franc. Houbigantius, "Racines
Hébr. . . . ou Diction. Hebr. par
Racines," Paris, 1732.
Ant. Zanolini, "Lexicon Hebraicum,"
Padua, 1732.
Nicol. Burger, "Lexicon Hebr.-Chald.-Lat."
Copenhagen, 1733.
Jo. Bougetius, "Lexicon Hebr. et Chald."
Rome, 1737.
Jo. Simonis, "Onomasticon V. T." Halle,
1741.
Fr. Haselbauer, "Lexicon Hebr.-Chald."
Prague, 1743.
Jo. Christ. Clodius, "Lexicon Hebr.
Selectum," Leipsic, 1744.
Jo. Christ. Klemm, "Lex. Hebr.-Germ.-Lat."
Tübingen, 1745.
Petr. Guaria, "Lexicon Hebr. et Chald.
Biblicum," Paris, 1746.
Weitenauer, "Hierolexicon Linguæ Hebr.,
Chald. et Syr." Augsburg, 1750, 1753.
Jo. Simonis, "Dictionarium V. T.
Hebr.-Chald." Halle, 1752, 1766;
"Lexicon Manuale Hebr. et Chald." ib.
1756; Amsterdam, 1757; Leyden, 1763;
Halle, 1771; (ed. I. G. Eichhorn) 1793;
(enlarged by F. S. Winer) Leipsic, 1828;
English by Charles Seager, London, 1832.
P . . ., "Lexicon
Hebr.-Chald.-Latino-Biblicum," Avignon,
1758, 1765; Leyden, 1770.
Anonymous, "Neu Eingerichtetes Deutsch-Hebr.
Wörterbuch," Oettingen, 1764.
John Parkhurst, "An Hebrew and English
Lexicon," London, 1762, 1778, 1792,
1811, 1823.
Jos. Montaldi, "Lex. Hebr. et
Chald.-Biblic." Rome, 1789.
W. Fr. Hetzel, "Kritisches Wörterbuch
der Hebr. Sprache," vol. i., sec. 1,
Halle, 1793.
Ph N. Moser, "Lexicon Manuale Hebr. et
Chald." Ulm, 1795.
Jo. Chr. Fried. Schulz, "Hebr.-Deutsches
Wörterbuch über das A. T."
To this list must be added the following
lexicons on the language of the Talmud,
written by Christians:
Sebastian Münster, "Dictionarium
Chaldaicum non tam ad Chald. Interpretes,
quam Rabbinorum Intelligenda Commentaria
Necessarium," Basel, 1527.
Johann Buxtorf the Elder, "Lexicon
Chaldaicum Talmudicum," ed. Jo.
Buxtorflus the Younger," Basel, 1639.
Joh Henr. Otho "Lex.
Rabbin.-Philologicum," Geneva, 1675.
Ant. Zanolini, "Lexicon Chaldaico
Rabbinicum," Padua, 1747.
Bon. Girandeau, S. J., "Dictionarium
Hebraicum, Chaldaicum, et Rabbinicum,"
Paris, 1778.
The Most Popular Dictionaries
Among the seventy or more lexicons above
enumerated that were called forth by the
study of Hebrew among the Christian
theologians down to the end of the
eighteenth century, the following may be
noted for the number of editions through
which they have passed: the works of
Sebastian Münster, S. Pagninus, Buxtorf,
Coccejus, Reineccius, Simonis. Most of
the lexicons deal also with the Aramaic
portions of the Bible, the designation "Chaldaic"
for this language having become current
since Sebastian Münster's time, though
even Dunash ibn Labrat. calls the
Aramaic in his polemic against Saadia,
No. 6. The comparison of Hebrew with its
kindred languages, already indicated by
William Postellus in the first half of
the sixteenth century, and by Guichard,
"L'Harmonie Etymologique des Langues
Hébr.," etc., Paris, 1660, was first
carried out lexically by Schindler, then
by Hottinger, and more completely and on
a more solid basis by Castelli. But it
remained for Albert Schultens (died
1750), an eminent member of the
distinguished Dutch school, to place the
comparison of Hebrew with the Arabic on
a more solid scientific foundation, the
achievements of the Jewish philologists
of the preceding centuries having been
forgotten. Schultens himself compiled no
dictionary; but his contributions to
Hebrew lexicography are found in many
treatises and commentaries. Attempts to
translate the Hebrew into the vernacular
instead of into Latin were first made in
Dutch, then in English, Flemish, German,
and French.
Gesenius
The rapid development of philology in
all its branches during the first
decades of the nineteenth century also
extended to Hebrew, which gradually
occupied a position independent of
theology. The labors of Wilhelm Gesenius
marked a new epoch in grammar and
lexicography. His lexicon, in the
enlarged and modified later editions,
has remained down to the present day the
lexical manual most in demand for the
study of the Bible—a proof of its
excellence that was apparent even in the
earlier editions. In its first form (Leipsic,
1810, 1812) it bore the title "Hebr.-Deutsches
Handwörterbuch über die Schriften des A.
T." This book became the basis for the
large "Thesaurus Philolog.-Criticus,"
1829-42, the last fasciculi of which
were completed after Gesenius' death (in
1842) by Rödiger, 1853-1858. An
abbreviated edition of the "Handwörterbuch"
was issued under the title "Neues
Hebr.-Deutsches Handwörterbuch," 1815;
and this became the basis for the later
editions, which, beginning with the
second thoroughly revised edition
(1823), bore the title "Hebr. und
Chaldäisches Wörterbuch." Gesenius
himself issued the third and fourth
editions, 1828, 1834. The editors of the
later editions were: Dietrich, 1857,
1863, 1868; Mühlau and Volck, 1883,
1886, 1890; F. Buhl, 1895, 1899.
Gesenius also issued the third edition
in Latin, under the title "Lexicon
Manuale," Leipsic, 1832-33. An English
translation of the first "Handwörterbuch"
of 1810 was issued by Christ. Leo,
Cambridge, 1825-28; the new "Handwörterbuch"
of 1815 was issued in English by J. W.
Gibbs, Andover, 1824; other editions,
London, 1827, 1832; the "Lexicon Manuale"
was translated into English by Edw.
Robinson, Boston, 1836 (last ed., 1854);
and by Tregellas, 1859. This is the
basis of the Oxford lexicon, appearing
since 1892 under the title of "A Hebrew
and English Lexicon of the Old
Testament," edited by Francis Brown,
with the cooperation of S. R. Driver and
Charles A. Briggs. The ??????? ???. ???
??????? ????????, Malta, 1842, is also
based on Gesenius' work, of which a
Swedish translation appeared at Upsala
in 1829-32.
Other lexicons appeared in the course of
the nineteenth century, of which the
following is a list, Steinschneider's "Handbuch"
furnishing the material down to 1859:
Th Imm. Dindorf, "Novum Lex. Linguæ Hebr.
et Chald." Leipsic, 1801, 1804.
Samuel Pike, "A Comparative Hebrew Lex."
Glasgow, 1802.
Evr. Scheidius, "Lex. Hebr. et Chald.
Man." Utrecht, 1805, 1810.
Aug. Fried. Pfeiffer, "Man. Bibl. Hebr.
et Chald." Erlangen, 1809.
Chr. Gottlieb Elwert, "Deutsch-Hebr.
Wörterbuch," Reutlingen, 1822.
E. F. C. Rosenmüller, "Vocabularium V.
T. Hebr. et Chald." Halle, 1822, 1827.
James Andrew, "Hebrew Dict. and
Grammar," London, 1823.
Jo. Fried. Schroeder, "Deutsch-Hebr.
Wörterb." Leipsic, 1823.
Franc. Fontanella, "Vocabulario Ebreo-Ital.
et Ital.-Ebreo," Venice, 1824.
L'Abbé Giraud, "Vocabulaire
Hébr.-Français," Wilna, 1825.
J. B. Glaire, "Lex. Manuale Hebr. et
Chald." Paris, 1830, 1843.
Joh Ev. Stadler, "Lex. Manuale Hebr.-Latin,"
Munich, 1831.
Em. Fried. Leopold, "Lex. Hebr. et Chald."
Leipsic, 1832.
J. h L. Biesenthal, "Hebr. und Chald.
Schulwörterbuch," Berlin, 1835-47.
W. L. Roy, "A Complete Hebrew and
English Dictionary," New York, 1838.
Samuel Lee, "A Lex. Hebr., Chald., and
English," London, 1840, 1844.
William Wallace Duncan, "A New
Hebrew-English and English-Hebrew Lex."
ib. 1841.
Ernst Meier, "Hebr. Wurzelwörterbuch,"
Mannheim, 1845.
Fr. Nork, "Vollständiges
Hebr.-Chald.-Rabbinisches Wörterbuch,"
Grimma, 1842.
Fred. Bialloblotzky, "Lexicon Radicum
Hebr." London, 1843.
William Osborn, "A New Hebrew-English
Lexicon," ib. 1845.
B. Davidson, "The Analytical Hebrew and
Chaldee Lexicon," ib. 1848.
Fr. J. V. D. Maurer, "Kurzgefasstes Hebr.
und Chald. Handwörterbuch," Stuttgart,
1851.
G. Stier, "Hebräisches Vocabularium,"
Leipsic, 1857, 1859.
Benj. Davies, "Hebrew Lexicon," 2d ed.,
London, 1876.
A new arrangement of lexical matter is
found in Carl Siegfried and B. Stade's "Hebräisches
Wörterbuch zum Alten Testament," Leipsic,
1893, in which the comparison of the
kindred languages is excluded, the
etymology made secondary, and the
introduction of so-called primary
meanings avoided, while the vocabulary
and idioms are given as completely as
possible. Friedrich Delitzsch advocates
the free use of Assyrian in his work,
"Prolegomena eines Neuen Hebr.-Aram.
Wörterbuches zum A. T." Leipsic, 1886
(see Nöldeke's exhaustive discussion in
"Z. D. M. G." xl. 718-743).
Jewish Lexicographers of the
Nineteenth Century
The new stimulus given to the study of
the Bible among the European Jews by
Moses Mendelssohn and his followers was
evident also in the demands for lexical
aids to that study. The Hebrew lexicons
written by Jews in the last decades of
the eighteenth century have already been
mentioned. J. Ben-Ze'eb's "Ozar ha-Shorashim"
(Treasury of Roots), Vienna, 1807, was
very popular down to the second half of
the century, and did good work in
purifying the language in eastern
Europe. The second edition appeared in
1816; the third, edited by Letteris, in
1839-1844; the fourth, in 1862-64.
Jewish learning, which was developed to
an unexpected degree by the generation
of Jewish scholars following
Mendelssohn's school, brought to light
especially the works of classical
scholars dealing with Hebrew philology
and Bible exegesis, advancing thereby
also modern Hebrew philology. The Hebrew
lexicons of the past, edited or printed
for the first time, have been mentioned
above. Julius Fürst was most active as
lexicographer, publishing a new edition
of the Bible concordance. In 1842 he
issued a Hebrew-Chaldee school lexicon;
and in 1869 a Hebrew pocket-dictionary
to the Old Testament. His "Hebräisch und
Chaldäisches Handwörterbuch über das A.
T." Leipsic, 1857-61 (2d ed., 1863; 3d
ed., by Ryssel, 1876), "marked a great
advance, evincing an assiduous and
scholarly use of the many products of
Old Testament exegesis" (Diestel). The
work was translated into English by
Davidson, the fifth edition appearing in
1885.
Following is a list of other Hebrew
lexicons to the Bible which were written
by Jews:
Hananiah Coen, , "Vocabulario
Compendioso Ebraico-Italiano," Reggio,
1811-12.
W. Heinemann, , "Vocabulary Hebrew and
English," London, 1823.
Van Embden, "Prospectus eines
Hebr.-Deutschen und Deutsch-Hebr.
Wörterbuches," Hamburg, 1823.
Judah Laz. Kron, , "Hebr.-Deutsches
Wörterbuch," Wilna, 1826.
D. Luzzatto, "Dizionario Compendiato
Ebraico-Chald., Latino et Italiano,"
part i., Florence, 1827.
Marchand d'Ennery, "Hebr.-Franz.
Wörterbuch," 1827.
Jos. Hirschfeld, , "Neues Synonymisches
Handwörterbuch zur Beförderung der
Hebräischen Sprache," Frankfort-on-the-Oder,
1818, 1830.
Moses Lemans and Y. J. Mulder, "Hebr.-Nederduitsch
Handwoordenboek," Amsterdam, 1829-31.
Abraham Buchner, , grammar and lex.,
Warsaw, 1830.
M. I. Benlevi, , "Tabellarisches
Hebr.-Deutsches Wörterbuch," Hanover,
1833.
Selig Newmann, "Hebrew and English
Lexicon," London, 1834; "English and
Hebrew Lexicon," ib. 1832.
Michael Josephs, , "An English and
Hebrew Lexicon," ib. 1834.
Simha b. Ephraim, , "Hebr. Lx. nach
Neuer Methode," part i., Warsaw, 1839.
Joseph Johlsohn, , "Biblisch-Hebr.
Wörterbuch," Frankfort-on-the-Main,
1840.
Isaac Nordheimer, "A Complete Hebrew and
Chaldean Concordance to the O. T." part
i., New York, 1842.
S. E. Heigmans, , "Hebr. en Nederduitsch
Woordenboekje," Amsterdam, 1845.
Abigail Lindo, "A Hebrew-English and
English-Hebrew Dictionary," London,
1846.
Emanuel Recanati, "Dizionario Ebr.-Chald.
ed. Italiano," Verona, 1854-56.
W. G. Schauffler, , "Diccionario della
Lengua Santa" (Ladino), Constantinople,
1855.
A. Luzzatto, , "Vocabulario Italiano
Hebr." Verona, 1856.
E. Bardach, , Letteris, Vienna, 1868.
David Cassel, "Hebr.-Deutsches
Wörterbuch," Berlin, 1871, 1885, 1886,
1889, 1898.
M. E. Stern, , Vienna, 1871.
Ch Pollak, "Héber-Magyar Teljes Szótár,"
Budapest, 1881.
J. Steinberg, , "Hebr.-Deutsch-Russisches
Wörterbuch," Wilna, 1897.
Jewish Dictionaries of Talmud
Jewish learning of the nineteenth
century has produced important works in
the field of Talmudic lexicography, the
most important of which are Jacob Levy's
"Neuhebräisches und Chaldäisches
Wörterbuch über die Talmudim und
Midraschim," with additions by h L.
Fleischer, Leipsic, 1876-89; and his "Chaldäisches
Wörterbuch über die Targumim," ib. 1886.
M. Jastrow's work, "Dictionary of the
Targumim, the Talmud Babli and
Yerushalmi, and the Midrashic
Literature," London and New York, 1886
et seq., the concluding portion of which
will shortly appear, is also of
independent value. Alexander Kohut's
edition of the 'Aruk, mentioned above,
assumed the shape of an independent
lexicon by reason of its size and wealth
of material. J. M. Landau's edition of
the 'Aruk, Prague, 1819-24, also
containing many additions, was used for
a long time. The foreign words, more
especially of the Talmud, are explained
in S. and M. Bondi's , Dessau, 1812; in
J. B. Schönhak's "Ha-Mashbir," Warsaw,
1858; by A. Brüll in "Fremdsprachliche
Redensarten in Talm. und Midr.," Leipsic,
1869; and in J. Fürst's "Glossarium
Græco-Hebraicum, oder der Griechische
Wörterschatz der Jüdischen Midraschwerke,"
Strasburg,1890. An important supplement
to the Talmudic lexicons, including the
whole material, is S. Krauss's "Griechische
und Lateinische Lehnwörter im Talmud,
Midrasch, und Targum," with notes by
Immanuel Löw, Berlin, 1898, 1899. Among
other works on Talmudic lexicography,
the following may be mentioned on
account of their lexical form:
Isaiah Berlin, , glossary to the 'Aruk:
i., Breslau, 1830; ii., Vienna, 1859.
M. Lattes, additions to Levy's lexicon,
Milan, 1878, 1881; "Miscellanea Postuma,"
1884, 1885.
J. h Dessauer, , short lexicons to the
Talmud, Erlangen, 1839.
M. E. Stern, , Vienna, 1863.
G. h Dalman, , "Aram.-Neuhebr.
Wörterbuch zu Targum, Talmud, und
Midrasch," Frankfort-on-the-Main, 1897,
1901, a very useful work.
No special lexical treatment of the
Neo-Hebrew of the Midrashim has yet been
undertaken, though a beginning is found
in Hananiah Coen's , Reggio, 1822, and
Geiger's glossary to his "Lehrund
Lesebuch der Sprache der Mischna,"
Breslau, 1845. Mention should also be
made of the work of the non-Jewish
scholar A. Th Hartmann, "Thesaurus
Linguæ Hebr. e Mischna Augendus,"
Rostock, 1825, 1826. David Löwy's
lexicon, , Prague, 1845, 1847,
containing Hebrew words and idioms found
in the Talmud, is carried only as far as
the root . W. Bacher's "Die Aelteste
Terminologie der Jüdischen
Schriftauslegung. Ein Wörterbuch der
Bibelexegetischen Kunstsprache der
Tannaiten," Leipsic, 1899, is confined
to one special field.
There is as yet no lexicon of the later
form of Hebrew in post-Talmudic times,
when the vocabulary was strongly
influenced and enriched by the various
sciences treated in the Hebrew language
and by the translations from the Arabic.
Jac. Goldenthal issued his "Grundzüge
und Beiträge zu Einem
Sprachvergleichenden
Rabbinisch-Philologischen Wörterbuch,"
in the "Abhandlungen der Kais. Akademie
der Wissenschaften," Vienna, 1849. Zunz,
who included very instructive lists of
words in his works on synagogal poetry,
expressed in 1856 a "wish for a lexicon
of the Hebrew language" (in "Z. D. M.
G." x. 501-512; "Gesammelte Schriften,"
iii. 14-30); but this wish has not yet
been fulfilled. See also Steinschneider,
"Fremdsprachliche Elemente im
Neuhebräischen," Prague, 1845.
Modern Hebrew
In the last few decades the vocabulary
of the Hebrew language, which is used in
Russia and Poland as a literary
language, and in certain regions of
Palestine and the East as vernacular,
has been materially increased, in many
cases at the sacrifice of the models set
by Biblical purity and historic
tradition. This is due to the fact that
it is used in journals and scientific
works, so that modern objects and ideas
must be expressed in the ancient
language. The unscientific arbitrariness
thus arising would be checked by a
dictionary including the different
phases of the development of the Hebrew
language, in which the Hebrew of the
Bible, of the Mishnah, of the medieval
scientific and poetic literature, and,
finally, the modern revived Hebrew
should each be treated, and those words
definitely adopted and standing the test
of scientific investigation be lexically
determined. The publication of two such
lexicons has recently been undertaken,
partly with scientific ends in view,
partly to answer the practical needs of
those writing in Hebrew; namely, S. I.
Fuenn's "Ha-Ozar," Warsaw (as far as the
letter ?), and Ben Judah's "Ha-Millon,"
Jerusalem (only two fasciculi so far).G.
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